الزراعة والتنمية الريفية والغابات
Preface
Across all areas of social statistics as well as some areas of economic statistics there is a widespread and rapid trend towards the use of administrative sources, either to complement traditional census and survey sources, or to replace them. There are many advantages to this overall trend, including reduced respondent burden, faster production of statistics, and the concomitant reduced costs. There are also well-known drawbacks, such as a dependence on the content of administrative sources and the challenges in gathering data on subjective characteristics or other variables that are not recorded in administrative sources.
Global perspectives: barriers and gaps in accessing legal identity from desk study
The literature review identified several barriers and challenges faced by women, girls and individuals of diverse SOGIESC in accessing the legal identity system (that is, obtaining civil registration and identity documents, etc.) as presented below.
Characteristics of the causal chain
As a part of research question 1, this research study aimed to understand the following: (a) strength of evidence for the different links in the causal chain; and (b) characteristics of the causal chain that are important for researchers, policymakers and those designing interventions. Figure 2 outlines this chain.
Acknowledgements
This report was written by Ruta Nimkar (Research Team Leader) with input from Abis Getachew (Ethiopia National Researcher), Anna Patricia Saberon (Philippines National Research), Maryam Bidmeshgipour, Matthew Porges, Danilo Angulo-Molina and Michael Murphy, the research team from Meraki Labs. The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to IOM for commissioning this research as part of the Climate Resilience Against Trafficking and Exploitation (CREATE) project, with special thanks to Jenniffer Dew and Patrick Burland of IOM.
Structural, economic and political factors affecting the chain
Research question 3 (asking about the role of political, economic and structural factors in the climate change–trafficking chain) aims to understand the ways in which systemic factors can increase or reduce/strengthen or weaken resilience.
Individual, household and community factors affecting the chain
To address research question 2 (What individual-, household- and community-level factors can influence this causal chain? How can resilience be built at these levels?), this research looked specifically at both demographic factors and community factors that could affect the causal chain.
Introduction
Climate change is increasingly recognized as a complex global challenge with far-reaching implications for human societies. Its effects extend beyond environmental impacts, affecting various aspects of human society, including economic systems, social structures and human rights (IPCC, 2022).
Conclusions
Access to legal identity remains a challenge for women, girls and individuals of different SOGIESC, as evidenced by the barriers outlined in this report. Despite legislative progress promoting gender equality, gaps in enforcement, coupled with institutional inefficiencies and deeply ingrained sociocultural norms, continue to hinder women’s ability to obtain identity documents and register vital life events.
Acknowledgements
This report was prepared by Hélène Syed Zwick and was commissioned by the Migrant Protection Unit (MPX) of IOM in close collaboration with the African Union Institute for Statistics (STATAFRIC) and the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), in line with the implementation of the Second Strategy for the Harmonization of Statistics in Africa (also referred to as SHaSA2).
Individual, household and community factors affecting the chain
This section describes the ways in which demographic and community factors affect the climate change–trafficking chain in Ethiopia, based on both primary and secondary data and analysis.
Desk review
The body of literature examining the intersection of climate change and health impacts in industrial zones in Viet Nam, particularly Hanoi, is severely limited
Map of Seychelles
Climate migration in Egypt
Egypt is a typical example of an emerging lower-middle income economy that is highly vulnerable to climate change and faces numerous threats to its economic, social and environmental sustainability.
Individual, household and community factors affecting the chain
This section describes the ways in which demographic and community factors affect the climate change–trafficking chain in the Philippines, based on both primary and secondary data and analysis.
Implications of climate change
Climate change has led to profound implications on economic activities especially in agricultural and coastal areas.
Patterns and trends on trafficking in persons: Country profiles
The section provides the country profiles with an overview of the patterns and trends on TIP for each ECOWAS Member State based on the TIP administrative data reported via the WATIP questionnaire.
Introduction
Climate change poses significant challenges for Ethiopia, with both slow- and sudden-onset events increasingly affecting communities across the country (World Bank, 2021).
Approach and methodology
The methodology used in the study is a mixed methods approach (quantitative and qualitative).
Migration and maritime security
Seychelles has committed to ensuring that it will create an environment where migration is taking place in a safe, orderly and regular manner.
Theoretical background
Although the environment as a driving force behind migration is not new to the literature, it is currently receiving more attention because of climate change and the frequency of extremely damaging disasters.
Introduction
Climate change poses significant challenges for the Philippines, with both slow- and sudden-onset events increasingly affecting communities across the country.
Migration statistics in Seychelles
The Migration Profile recommends strengthening migration statistics to capture all migration-related information (e.g. on immigration, irregular migration and emigration).
Irregular migration
Irregular migration is not a key concept used in Seychelles.
Migration and Inequality
Drawing on Europe’s experience, this brief provides a cross-country comparative overview of inequality affecting children in the migration pathway, who are often described as 'children on the move'. Following a brief overview of the policy and practice in relation to various categories of refugee and migration children in Europe, it reflects on the performance of the countries with regard to Target 10.7 of the SDG.
Economic Development and the Evolution of Internal Migration
This paper uses Demographic and Health surveys to estimate internal migration between and within rural and urban areas for 31 countries at different stages of development. The methodological approach is to estimate migration transition matrices indicating the shares of the population (by gender) that move or stay in rural and urban areas over three periods (childhood and two forward periods). Results indicate that rural-to-rural migration is the dominant form of migration in many countries in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia that are still relatively less developed. For countries that have already undertaken the path of structural transformation, rural-to-urban migration is greater than intra-rural migration. Sizeable urban to rural migration flows are found in many countries, with rural returnees often contributing substantially to these urban-to-rural flows, which has implications for development options in both rural and urban areas. Return migration to rural areas is particularly large in countries in relatively early phases of development, and higher for males than for females. For the sample of countries in sub-Saharan Africa, on average 61 percent of males and 34 percent of females migrating from urban-to-rural areas are return migrants who lived in rural areas as children. The analysis also confirms anecdotal evidence that migrants move in several steps: in the overall sample of countries, at least 41 percent of males and 36 percent of females who move once will move a second time (or more). Internal migration patterns vary considerably according to gender in some regions of the world; however, in countries that are further along the path of structural transformation, and particularly urbanization, the magnitude of migration flows appears to be similar across genders.
Independent Children, Inconsistent Adults
Like adults, children migrate across borders for different reasons and in varying circumstances; and they face legal consequences as a result of their migration. Two of these consequences are common to all child migrants and have far-reaching implications: the child migrants become non-citizens or aliens once they cross a border, and they face a new social environment once they leave home. The existing legal framework does not directly address either of these consequences. Domestic child protection law, which addresses the problems facing children without satisfactory homes, does not often cover issues of foreign citizenship, including the risk of deportation and lack of entitlement to social benefits that non-citizen children can face. And migration law, which establishes the parameters of lawful status for recognized categories of migrant, does not deal with the needs and circumstances of most children who travel independently of their families. However, international law has long recognized the distinctive needs of some groups of child migrants. In the Declaration on the Rights of the Child, adopted by the League of Nations in 1924, the first ever international child rights declaration, two of the five principles articulated define rights relevant to child migrants: (1) the primacy of the child’s right to relief in times of distress (a precursor to attention to the special needs of refugee children) and (2) the imperative of protection for exploited children (prefiguring concern with child trafficking). More recent regional and domestic legislation regulating immigration has included provisions promoting family unity and by implication the migration of children with or to join their adult relatives. A broader engagement with the many other aspects of child migration however has been absent. There is no single piece of international or regional legislation that systematically and comprehensively addresses the issue. As a result the body of relevant legislation, though quite extensive and diverse, has an impact on child migrants which is inconsistent and incomplete.
Child Migrants with and without Parents
This paper studies child migration in Argentina, Chile and South Africa. It defines child migrants as under 18 year olds whose usual residence was in a different country or province five years prior to census. The paper estimates the scale of child migration; compares relative magnitudes of internal and international migration; and considers sensitivity to alternative definitions of migration. Second, it examines family structures within which migrant children live at destinations, defining children who are co-resident with adult parents and siblings as dependent, and those outside of these close family members, as independent. Third, the internal/international and in/dependent distinctions are analysed jointly to describe some social-economic characteristics of the four sub-groups of migrant children.
Child-Related Concerns and Migration Decisions
Current times are characterized by unprecedented migration levels: millions of people are on the move worldwide. Thus, understanding why people decide to migrate is a major goal of policymakers and international organizations, and migration has become a prominent issue on the global research agenda. Traditional migration drivers can be divided into reasons to leave (‘push’ factors) and reasons to migrate (‘pull’ factors), and include income deprivation, dissatisfaction with public services and institutions in the home country, conflict and war, climate change, and social networks abroad. In this paper, we focus our attention on children’s well-being as a potential migration driver. We investigate it by using the Gallup World Poll, a repeated cross-section dataset of a survey conducted in more than 150 countries from 2006 to 2016. We estimate the association between planned and intended migration and children’s perceived well-being using logit models with standardized coefficients, robust standard errors, and year and country fixed effects. Estimates reveal a positive and statistically significant association between child-related concerns, migration intent and plans. In particular, the probability of individuals having migration intent and plans increases where they report lower levels of satisfaction with child-related issues, as measured by the Youth Development Index, an index driven by indicators of respect for children and satisfaction with the education system. Moreover, children’s well-being affects more individuals living in households with children than those without. Finally, migration is a child- and youth-related phenomenon: young individuals would like to migrate, and plan to do so, more than older individuals.
Towards a Child Rights-Based Assessment Tool to Evaluate National Responses to Migrant and Refugee Children
This paper examines a range of tools, guidelines and formats available to monitor and evaluate various aspects of national responses to migrant children and argues for the need to integrate them into a single coherent, child focused, rights-based framework. Their current disparate application leaves gaps in the child’s protective environment and is not consistent with a holistic, child rights-based approach. Building on an analytical framework adopted by the Council of Europe in March 2018 to support a child-rights based approach by local and regional authorities to migrant and asylum-seeking children, the paper puts forward for consideration an integrated evaluation framework that incorporates and links existing practice models in order to ensure quality child-centred monitoring at each and every stage of the migration process.
COVID-19 and People on the Move
COVID-19 (coronavirus) leaves few lives and places untouched. But its impact is harshest for those groups who were already in vulnerable situations before the crisis. This is particularly true for many people on the move, such as migrants in irregular situations, migrant workers with precarious livelihoods, or working in the informal economy, victims of trafficking in persons as well as people fleeing their homes because of persecution, war, violence, human rights violations or disaster, whether within their own countries — internally displaced persons (IDPs) — or across international borders — refugees and asylum-seekers. The e-book for this policy brief has been converted into an accessible format for the visually impaired and people with print reading disabilities. It is fully compatible with leading screen-reader technologies such as JAWS and NVDA.
Love is Not a Passport to Sweden
This paper investigates how women’s right to live free from violence operates in the context of insecure immigration status. It is based on qualitative research addressing intimate partner violence against women with insecure immigration status in England and Sweden, analysed within a human rights theoretical framework. Empirical data were collected through in-depth, semi-structured interviews with 31 survivors from 14 different non–European Union countries and 57 professional stakeholders from local, national, and international organizations. The paper identifies a tension between human rights and immigration control that is present in theory, policy frameworks, and migrant women’s lived experiences. It contends that this tension has led to a proliferation of rights’ statuses for migrant women who are exposed to intimate partner violence. A solution is offered in the form of an expansionist model of human rights whereby presence in a territory is the basis for recognition as a rights-bearing subject.
Reconfiguring Care Relationships
Migration reconfigures care relationships as people adapt to employment, entitlements and care practices in a new context. While a rich genre of analysis of “global care chains” draws attention to how disadvantaged female migrant care workers from the global South fill the “care deficit” in high-income countries, these analyses tend to privilege care services and arrangements in the global North and the migrant as the provider of care. In contrast, there is little research on how migrants from developing countries meet their own and their families’ care needs, irrespective of whether they are paid care workers in the destination. In particular, we know little about the care needs of unskilled or semi-skilled migrant workers and refugees who occupy the less privileged circuits of contemporary global mobility and who are often marginalized from state social policies that address care needs. This paper offers an analysis of the effects of migration on the care needs and relationships of Ethiopian migrant mothers and their families and their access to childcare in destination countries. Specifically, it draws on empirical research on the experiences of Ethiopian migrant domestic workers who have children while in Lebanon and the experiences of Ethiopian women refugees with children who have resettled in Australia.
Neither Heroines nor Victims
Circular labour migration is frequently portrayed as a gender-neutral phenomenon. Despite the growing literature on the feminization of migration, scholarly and policy literature is often gender-blind. In Nepal, over the last decade, the share of women migrant workers has significantly increased. The National Population Census 2011 shows that about 13 per cent of the absentee population is composed of women. Due to prevailing patriarchal norms and values and skewed policy, female labour migration is traditionally stigmatized and associated with sex work or equated to trafficking. However, with rising demands for cheap labour (particularly domestic work) in destination countries (for example, the Persian Gulf), continued inadequacy of rural employment opportunities and changing aspirations, women are increasingly migrating independently. Pourakhi, an organization established by women returnees in 2003, has collected more than 1,700 case studies on returnee women migrant workers in Nepal. This paper delves into 307 of these, as well as a consultation with 14 returnee migrant women from 14 districts, to better understand the reintegration process. Rather than focusing on a (necessary) critique of labour markets and on the high human, social and financial costs of migration, this study aims at giving voice to the subjectivities of migrant women in Nepal, as less attention has been paid to this aspect. It unpacks their reasons for undertaking international migration and their struggle for capability to secure a livelihood in the context of globalization.