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Good Health and Well-Being

Good Governance of Early Childhood Development Programmes in Developing Countries

May 2010

Working Paper

Virginia E. Vitiello and Marco Kools

There is need for a holistic, comprehensive ECD monitoring system that covers the multiple facets (i.e. education, health, social protection and the social and economical context in which the child is born) of public and private ECD interventions in a country. Such a system is essential for ensuring that all children can reap the benefits of ECD. It serves as a means of support and oversight for monitoring the performance and planning of ECD policies and programmes in developing countries. The paper highlights the importance of comprehensive ECD monitoring for making evidence-based decisions, and discusses practical issues to take into consideration when developing such a system. One of the first steps is deciding what to monitor through the selection of a limited number of valid and measurable indicators that are aligned to policy and programme goals. In this respect the capacity of the government system should be thoroughly assessed, including 1) the identification and evaluation of existing administrative and other data sources; 2) a training needs analysis of the administrators who will operate the monitoring system to allow for strengthening their skills and prepare them for their future duties; and 3) consideration of the long-term costs of operating a monitoring system in relation to the (projected) available funds, in order to ensure the sustainability of the system.

Child Mortality and Injury in Asia

Oct 2007

Working Paper

Michael Linnan, Le Vu Anh, Viet Cuong Pham, Fazlur Rahman, Aminur Rahman, Shumona Shafinaz, Chitr Sitti-Amorn, Orapin Chaipayom, Venus Udomprasertgul, Maria Consorcia Lim-Quizon, Guang Zeng, Jing Rui-Wei, Zhu Liping, Katrina Irvine and Thomas Dunn

This paper presents a more detailed description of the survey methodology for technical specialists interested in understanding the major differences between the surveys and the methods used in making the previous estimates of child deaths. A detailed description is provided for survey governance, sampling design, survey instruments, the classification scheme for mortality and morbidity measured in the surveys, the fieldwork procedure, the analytic framework, weighting and adjustments and survey costs. Following this, a number of methodological lessons are addressed, such as: the need to count all children and not only those under five years of age; the need to count all clearly identifiable causes of death in those same groups; the need to count morbidity as well as mortality; and the need to count the deaths in the community where they occur to avoid the various biases associated with facility-based counting. A number of examples from the surveys are shown to illuminate the issues so that they are clear for non-technical readers.

Redistribuir el ciudado no remunerado y prestar servicios de cuidadoes de calidad

Dec 2016

Working Paper

United Nations Women

Existe un reconocimiento generalizado entre la comunidad internacional acerca de la centralidad del cuidado para el desarrollo sostenible y la igualdad de género. En el documento “Transformar nuestro mundo: la Agenda 2030 para el Desarrollo Sostenible”—también conocido como “Agenda 2030”—, los cuidados no remunerados figuran como una de las metas del quinto Objetivo de Desarrollo Sostenible (“Lograr la igualdad entre los géneros y empoderar a todas las mujeres y las niñas”), y las y los agentes políticos reconocen cada vez más la importancia crucial de este elemento para el desarrollo sostenible. Dado el consenso generado en torno a la importancia del cuidado —y a su reconocimiento, reducción y redistribución—, el presente documento profundiza en las cuestiones clave que surgen en el ámbito de las políticas acerca de cómo reducir la carga de trabajo doméstico y de cuidados no remunerado, así como en el modo en que podría redistribuirse dicha carga de manera más equitativa entre mujeres y hombres, y entre las familias y el conjunto de la sociedad. Su objetivo es cerrar la brecha entre el consenso emergente sobre la importancia del cuidado y las opciones de políticas (bastante menos claras) dirigidas a respaldar los cuidados corrigiendo la visión de que se trata de un ámbito exclusivamente femenino.

Protection de la sécurité de revenu de femmes dans leur vieillesse

Oct 2015

Working Paper

United Nations Women

Cette Note offre une synthèse des conclusions de recherche, des analyses et des recommandations de politique concernant la transformation de systèmes de pension dans le sens d’une réduction de l’écart homme-femme et d’une protection de la sécurité de revenu de femmes dans leur vieillesse. Le vieillissement a un visage féminin. Les femmes non seulement vivent plus longtemps que les hommes, mais sont également exposées à un risque accru d’insécurité et de dépendance économiques dans leur vieillesse. Par suite d’une vie entière de désavantage économique, les femmes parvenues à la force de l’âge se retrouvent avec de moindres revenus et de moindres possibilités d’accès à de la terre, à un logement et à d’autres actifs qui auraient pu leur assurer un niveau de vie adéquat. De plus, les systèmes de pension de retraite manquent manifestement d’équité dans leurs prestations pour les femmes. Dans la plupart des pays, les femmes ont moins de possibilités que les hommes de toucher une pension ou reçoivent des prestations de retraite inférieures. Les sexospécificités du marché du travail et du parcours de vie expliquent le désavantage des femmes du troisième âge, mais leurs incidences peuvent être amplifiées ou atténuées par la prise de dispositions spécifiques dans l’agencement de pensions de retraite. Cette Note examine ces questions de plus près et montre comment il est possible de transformer les systèmes de pension pour réduire les écarts liés au genre et à protéger la sécurité de revenu des femmes dans leur vieillesse.

Why Assist People Living in Poverty?

Nov 2016

Working Paper

Armando Barrientos, Abdul-Gafaru Abdulai, Daisy Demirag, Richard De Groot and Luigi Peter Ragno

The paper provides an examination of the relevance of ethics to poverty reduction. Ethics examines the nature and scope of institutions as the deepest level of analysis. The ethics of poverty is understood as the principles and processes of justification employed to justify assisting people in poverty. The paper argues that ethical perspectives are relevant to understanding poverty and the priority given to poverty reduction in society. It further argues that ethical perspectives inform the design and scope of anti-poverty programmes. Drawing on the recent expansion of social assistance in Brazil, South Africa and Ghana, the paper shows that ethical perspectives are relevant to our understanding of the evolution of anti-poverty policy.

Commitment to Equity for Children (CEQ4C)

Mar 2018

Working Paper

Jose Cuesta, Jon Jellema, Yekaterina Chzhen and Lucia Ferrone

Fiscal incidence analysis is the most widely used methodology to assess the distributional effects of fiscal policies. However, for 40 years, it has lacked a child lens. A child focus on the redistributive capacity of fiscal policy is increasingly important due to the disproportionate incidence of poverty among children globally. This paper provides a child-dedicated focus on fiscal incidence analysis by tracking child-relevant benefits, turning children the unit of analysis, and using multidimensional child poverty metrics. The analysis–Commitment to Equity for Children, or CEQ4C–integrates three analytical frameworks, namely, public finance, fiscal incidence analysis, and multidimensional child poverty analysis. The paper develops a proof of concept for Uganda that includes measurement, diagnostics, and a policy simulation package replicable across diverse contexts. The proof of concept confirms that CEQ4C provides a higher-resolution fiscal incidence analysis for children than the traditional fiscal incidence analysis.

Education for All?

Apr 2016

Working Paper

Zlata Bruckauf and Yekaterina Chzhen

Measuring inequality of learning outcomes in a way that provides meaningful benchmarks for national policy while retaining a focus on those students who are ‘hard to reach’ and ‘hard to teach’ is a challenging but vital task in the light of the global post-2015 education agenda. Drawing on PISA 2012 data and its earlier rounds, this paper explores alternative approaches to measuring educational inequality at the ‘bottom-end’ of educational distribution within the cross-national context. Its main aim is to understand how far behind children are allowed to fall in their academic achievement compared to what is considered a standard performance in their country. Under the framework of relative (measured as achievement gap between the median and 10th percentile) and absolute (measured by the percentage of students achieving at a given benchmark) educational disadvantage it examines cross-country rankings as well as national trajectories with reference to overall academic progress. We find that on average across OECD countries around 11% of 15- year-olds lacked skills in solving basic reading, mathematical, as well as science, tasks in 2012, but variation across countries was large. The average achievement gap in mathematics across OECD countries between low-achieving and ‘average’ students stood at around 122 score points; in reading, at 131 score points; and in science, at 124 score points. This paper argues that understanding how the reduction in bottom-end inequality is achieved matters no less than the outcome itself, as it often reflects the level of support provided to low-achieving students. As our analysis shows, narrowing the achievement gap might be due to falling academic standards and have no direct benefit to the ‘bottom group’.

Falling Behind

Apr 2016

Working Paper

Early identification of students who fail to reach basic, age-appropriate literacy skills is the first step to ensure timely support of their learning. Understanding those drivers of low achievement that are beyond students’ control enables policy makers to foster equal opportunity for achievement. Drawing on the OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2000 to 2012 data, this paper examines the risk factors of low achievement, defined here as scoring below the 10th percentile of the distribution, and their evolution over time, across 39 industrialized nations. These include an aggregate measure of socio-economic status (SES), immigration background, non-test language spoken at home, living in a single parent household, and gender. We find that family SES, is one of the most consistent predictors of low-achievement (across a diverse range of educational systems) and most persistent (across time) . Students' immigration background is found to be strongly interlinked with family SES, yet affects low achievement independently. Language disadvantage is one of the possible channels through which immigration can increase risks of low achievement. It has a strong and relatively consistent association with low achievement across countries. Meanwhile family structure, specifically a single-parent household, is a risk factor in only two out of 39 countries (Greece and Poland). We also find no evidence that the gender gap in reading – in favour of girls – narrowed over time, leaving boys at risk of educational disadvantage in the majority of countries.

The Long-Term Effect of Humanitarian Emergencies on Adolescents

Aug 2018

Working Paper

Cirenia Chávez, José Cuesta, Michelle Godwin and Jeremy Shusterman

This short paper grew out of discussions at a two-day research workshop focused on famines and adolescents. It explores some of what we do and do not know about the impacts of humanitarian situations on adolescents’ lives. Adolescents and their specific capacities and vulnerabilities have tended to be overlooked in the design and implementation of humanitarian responses, including in social protection and further components of such responses. This paper seeks to bring these questions to the attention of researchers, policy makers and practitioners in order to address identified priority gaps; build on existing knowledge; invest in better evidence generation; and include adolescents in research and response efforts in meaningful ways. Such improvements to humanitarian responses would assist in developing more inclusive efforts that consider all ages in the child’s life-course; aim for more sustainable well-being outcomes and help meet core commitments to children in these settings.

Children and Reparation

Jun 2010

Working Paper

Dyan Mazurana and Khristopher Carlson

This paper is among the first to analyse children‟s experiences of reparations programmes, taking into consideration programmes from Africa, Asia and Latin America. The violence, abuse and hardship that girls and boys suffer during armed conflict and political violence under authoritarian and dictatorial regimes continues to severely affect their development long after the end of war or demise of the violent regime. They experience violations of their civil, political, social, economic and cultural rights, including the rights to life, freedom of movement and association, education, health and family, which embraces the right to knowing and being cared for by their parents. Their rights to development and to a safe and healthy environment are also violated. It is not possible to fully repair children who have experienced such harms. Nonetheless, girls and boys have a right to remedy and reparation under international law – to benefit from reparation in material, symbolic, individual and collective forms. This working paper draws from reparation as conceived in the United Nations Resolution on Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law (2005). It offers a concise overview of trends in reparation programmes set up to address situations of armed conflict and under authoritarian and dictatorial regimes where children are subjected to systematic forms of grave violence. The authors demonstrate the failure to name and address grave rights violations against children in www.unicef-irc.org. past reparations programmes and efforts, much to the detriment of surviving children. The authors argue that at the heart of much of the violence against children in situations of armed conflict is the terrible damage done to relationships and social fabric among individuals, communities, societies and cultures. Recognizing the need to address the healing of relationships and reweaving of social fabric, in part through reparation, the paper offers suggestions for reparation approaches that could lead to better informing and shaping reparation responses for child victims.

Sustainable Development Goal 1.2

May 2017

Working Paper

Yekaterina Chzhen, Zlata Bruckauf and Emilia Toczydlowska

The new universal Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) call for “reducing at least by half the proportion of men, women and children of all ages living in poverty in all its dimensions according to national definitions” by 2030. Since few European Union (EU) countries have an official national multidimensional poverty measure for monitoring progress towards the SDGs, this paper proposes and evaluates a child-specific multidimensional poverty measure using data from ad hoc material deprivation modules of the European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) 2009 and 2014. The proposed measure can be used both for national and EU-wide SDG monitoring without replacing either national or EU-wide indices of material deprivation. Comparing child multidimensional poverty rates between 2009 and 2014, the paper ranks EU countries based on the 2014 headcount rates and changes over time.

Measuring Adolescent Well-Being

Jul 2016

Working Paper

Prerna Banati and Judith Diers

Advocacy and action for adolescents have been hampered by the lack of a concrete results framework that can be used to describe the state of the world’s adolescents and serve as a basis for goals and targets. In order to fill this gap, UNICEF, in collaboration with key partners, is facilitating the development of an outcome-based framework that incorporates the key dimensions of an adolescent’s life and a proposed set of globally comparable indicators that will provide a common platform to track the progress of adolescent development and well-being. The domains that have been selected for measurement are: health and well-being, education and learning, safety and protection, participation, transition to work.

Protecting Vulnerable Families in Central Asia

Jul 2011

Working Paper

Franziska Gassmann

Since the end of 2007, countries in Central Asia have been struck by two major consecutive shocks: the food and fuel price increase in 2007-08, and the global economic and financial crisis that began at the end of 2008. Households, both poor and not poor, are directly and adversely affected by the crisis. The multi-dimensionality of the crises and the volatile economic environment challenge the ability of vulnerable households to cope and to maintain their living standards. Social protection programmes play an important role in the response to a crisis. This paper provides an overview of the social and economic vulnerabilities of households with children in the five Central Asian countries, and assesses the ability of national social protection systems to address these, with the main focus on the role of non-contributory cash transfers financed from general government revenues. The paper concludes that the existing social cash transfer systems are not effective in addressing the needs of poor and vulnerable children and families in Central Asia. Limited coverage together with limited funding reduces the potential poverty reduction impact of the programmes. The paper discusses potential strategies for improving existing systems by consolidating and protecting government spending, streamlining existing benefits and transfers, improving the identification of beneficiaries and strengthening administration, monitoring and evaluation systems.

Psychosocial Support for Children

Jun 2010

Working Paper

This paper reviews and analyses psychosocial support as an essential tool for protection of the rights of children participating in transitional justice mechanisms. Strategies for offering psychosocial support to children involved in transitional justice mechanisms can cover a wide range of interventions. Experiences show that the availability of psychosocial support in combination with effective protection strategies allow children to participate safely, improve the quality of their testimony and protect them against potential harm caused by their participation. The paper first looks at psychosocial factors that affect children‟s participation in transitional justice mechanisms. These factors largely determine children‟s need for protection and support and can reflect children‟s responses to their involvement in transitional justice processes. A distinction has to be made between psychosocial factors related to the child and his or her experiences during the conflict on the one side, and factors determined by the type of transitional mechanism on the other. Children‟s participation in transitional justice processes is influenced significantly by their personal experiences during the conflict; cognitive, social and emotional development; coping skills and social support. These factors influence children‟s capacity to give an accurate statement, cope with the stress of testifying, be confronted with the accused and deal with cross-examination. These have important implications for the choice of support strategies. While all children are affected by armed conflict, some are particularly vulnerable, including children who were direct victims of violence, children associated with armed forces or groups, victims of sexual violence or those who have very limited support in the current situation. The nature of the transitional justice mechanism determines children‟s role in the process, in terms of whether they give a statement, testify in court, participate in a hearing, make a submission or are cross-examined. These characteristics also influence the consequences of children‟s involvement, including possible threats to which they will be exposed. In judicial mechanisms such as international or hybrid tribunals, witnesses are mainly considered providers of evidence, and their involvement is very much shaped by strict rules of procedure and evidence. The adversarial system, common in many of these mechanisms, also puts a heavy burden on witnesses, particularly children. At the same time, international or hybrid tribunals usually have significantly more resources to set up support mechanisms and to establish protective measures for witnesses. Non-judicial mechanisms, in particular truth commissions, can tailor their procedures more easily to meet the needs and capacities of children. Children‟s participation can also take different forms and include innovative forms such as special hearings or submissions by children‟s groups. In addition, the absence of punitive elements and an adversarial process reduces the burden on witnesses and the potential threat against them. However, these mechanisms often lack the resources and mandate to ensure support and protection for children who participate. Second, this paper summarizes the legal framework guiding psychosocial support and protection of children in justice, truth and reconciliation processes. The Convention on the Rights of the Child forms the backbone of the legal framework for the protection and support of children in transitional justice mechanisms. Other instruments relevant for child victims and witnesses include the 1985 Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power, which outlines benchmarks for the protection of victims of crime, and the UN Guidelines on Justice in Matters involving Child Victims and Witnesses. Further, this paper analyses the strengths and weaknesses of past and current policies and procedures regulating the psychosocial support of children. Throughout the short history of transitional justice mechanisms psychosocial support for witnesses has developed in response to the growing involvement of child victims. The Special Court for Sierra Leone, the International Criminal Court and the truth commissions in Sierra Leone and in Liberia have put in place a variety of measures to protect the rights of child victims and witnesses participating in procedures. The following measures are discussed in the article: Integration of provisions for protection and support into the regulatory framework of transitional justice mechanisms; Selection of specialized staff and adequate training of all staff on issues related to dealing with child witnesses; Vulnerability assessment of potential child witnesses; Individual support and counselling before, during and after testimony; Establishment of protective measures before, during and after testimony; Long-term support and referral; Involvement of the community in support strategies and the use of local approaches to healing. Based on these experiences, a number of challenges are presented related to the involvement of children in transitional justice mechanisms, including the need to balance the right to participation and the right to protection. The paper looks as well at the discrepancy between the resources made available for different justice mechanisms and the possibilities for child participation that they can offer. Also discussed is the necessity to manage expectations of victims and witnesses involved in transitional justice mechanisms. The paper concludes with a number of recommendations for enhancing the protection of children in transitional justice mechanisms.

Migration and Inequality

May 2017

Working Paper

Emilia Toczydlowska and Bina D’Costa

Drawing on Europe’s experience, this brief provides a cross-country comparative overview of inequality affecting children in the migration pathway, who are often described as 'children on the move'. Following a brief overview of the policy and practice in relation to various categories of refugee and migration children in Europe, it reflects on the performance of the countries with regard to Target 10.7 of the SDG.

Simulation of the Effects of the Economic Crisis and Response Policies on Children in West and Central Africa

Jun 2010

Working Paper

Lacina Balma, John Cockburn, Ismaël Fofana, Samuel Kaboré and Luca Tiberti

Burkina Faso‟s hard earned economic gains in recent years have been eroded by the 2008-09 world financial and economic crisis. The country will particularly feel the effects of the world economic crisis due to its close links with the world economy. Most of the adverse effects are transmitted to households then passed onto children. The situation of children principally depends on the monetary and non-monetary wellbeing of their household. This, together with their greater vulnerability, means that children are at risk of suffering more, and for longer, from the impacts of the crisis. It is therefore crucial to understand and anticipate the effects that the crisis may have on children in Burkina Faso and to propose options for social protection to counter these effects. To this end, we propose a macro-micro economic approach. Macro-micro economic analysis uses a general calculable equilibrium (CGE) model to simulate the impacts of various transmission channels of the crisis to the Burkinabe economy. The results of these simulations are then used for the micro-econometric analysis, which integrates individual and household economic behaviour to evaluate the impact of the crisis on child welfare. According to our simulations, which run from 2009 to 2011, the financial crisis respectively leads to 5 and 1 percentage point increases in the incidence of monetary and caloric poverty among Burkinabe children. Moreover, the school enrolment rate for children will decline by about 0.7 percentage points due to the crisis, while the child labour rate will increase by about 1 percentage point. Finally, a 1 percentage point decrease in the medical consultation rate among children is expected, along with substitution from modern health services to traditional medicine. Large regional and rural vs. urban gaps are also noted. A monetary transfer policy targeting poor children appears to be the most effective at reversing the negative effects of the crisis and returning to the trend that would have existed without the crisis. Such a policy, financed by external aid and with a budget of 1% of GDP, re-establishes the trend that monetary poverty would have followed in the absence of a crisis and even leads to a reduction in hunger. It also limits the crisis‟ adverse effects on school enrolment, child labour and sick children‟s access to modern health care services. A universal (non-targeted) variant of this transfer policy for 0-5 year-olds has similar results and is easier to enact. Policies which subsidize food and cereals, as well as monetary transfer policies for the Centre and Mouhoun regions (the areas most affected by the August-September 2009 floods) were also analyzed.

Governance and the Rights of Children

Jun 2012

Working Paper

Ensuring the proper functioning of public institutions is integral to good governance, yet ensuring and monitoring the requirements of human rights instruments is difficult and measurement of children’s rights even more so. This paper explores some of the factors which impede and promote the public sector responsibilities towards children. The purpose of this analysis is to seek methods of assessing the performance of governments in their roles as protectors of the rights of children according to their international commitments. That assessment must extend beyond simple procedural responses to demands and consider the performance of governments in providing services to children and in protecting their rights. The multiplicity of actors involved in the process is described and the related problems for cooperation and effective implementation considered.

Adolescents’ Mental Health

May 2017

Working Paper

Mental health is increasingly gaining the spotlight in the media and public discourse of industrialized countries. The problem is not new, but thanks to more open discussions and fading stigma, it is emerging as one of the most critical concerns of public health today. Psychological problems among children and adolescents can be wide-ranging and may include attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), disruptive conduct, anxiety, eating and mood disorders and other mental illnesses. Consistent evidence shows the links between adolescents’ mental health and the experience of bullying. Collecting internationally comparable data to measure mental health problems among children and adolescents will provide important evidence and stimulate governments to improve psychological support and services to vulnerable children.

Does COVID-19 Affect the Health of Children and Young People More Than We Thought?

Jul 2020

Working Paper

Priscilla Idele, David Anthony, Kaku Attah Damoah and Danzhen You

Contrary to the current narrative, the risks of COVID-19 (coronavirus) disease in children and young people depend largely on where individuals live and how vulnerable they are to disease and ill health. It is commonly accepted, at least for now, that children and young people under 20 years of age have largely been spared the direct epidemiological effects on their own health and survival of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), responsible for COVID-19 disease. This narrative is based predominantly on early data from the countries first affected by the virus, notably China (Wuhan province) and Italy in early 2020, and also from other high-income countries (HICs) including the United States and some European nations. This narrative has conditioned the subsequent screening and testing for SARS-CoV-2 virus in children and young people under 20, which have been notably lower than for other age cohorts in many, but not all, countries. But demographic profiles differ widely between countries, and assumptions and narratives based on evidence taken from ageing societies, typical of HICs, may not hold for more youthful and growing populations, as illustrated by the contrast between the age-cohort profiles of COVID-19 cases for Italy and Kenya. For this reason, and given that the vast majority of the world’s children and young people live in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) and territories, we began to investigate the burden of COVID-19 cases among children and young people under 20 globally.

Measuring Household Welfare

Oct 2012

Working Paper

Marta Moratti and Luisa Natali

Consumption expenditure is probably the most common and preferred welfare indicator; however, its measurement is a challenging and time-consuming task. Although short consumption modules have potentially enormous advantage in terms of time and money savings, a recent and comprehensive literature on available experiments comparing short versus long modules is still lacking. The present paper aims at filling this gap trying to draw conclusions in terms of the accuracy of consumption and related poverty and inequality (distributional) estimates based on short modules. First, the paper briefly reviews the literature on how to accurately measure consumption and how survey design can influence consumption estimates; then, the empirical literature is discussed. The literature review mainly focuses on studies from the 1990s on developing countries. Available evidence seems to indicate that short modules underestimate consumption with respect to longer ones resulting in lower levels of recorded consumption and therefore less accurate estimates and higher poverty rates. However, one of the most complete, recent and authoritative studies in the field (Beegle et al., 2010) finds that short modules may actually result in a smaller downward bias compared to the benchmark than other longer consumption modules. In terms of relative ranking of households, the literature is scant; however, results from rigorous studies indicate that household consumption rankings obtained through short consumption modules are largely consistent with rankings derived from long modules. A critical review of the available evidence points to a number of factors that hinder the ability to draw firm conclusions; it indicates that there is still room for further investigation and provides some guidance for future field experiments in order for them to reach conclusiveness.

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